Effects of high temperature on the biological performance of growing pigs.

Abstract

152 EFFECTS OF HIGH TEMPERATURE ON THE BIOLOGICAL PERFORMANCE OF GROWING PIGS D.J. FARRELL* Summarv The physiological response by pigs to high temperature and the effects of plane of nutrition on the thermoneutral zone are discussed. Growth rate and food utilization are both influenced in the heat by age and feed intake, and less clearly by protein concentration in .the diet. Maintenance energy requirement is increased and efficiency of utilization of metabolizable energy is reduced in the heat. Carcass length is increasedbtif;eye-muscle appears to decline and therefore carcass quality at high temperatures. There is however very little data to show what dietary manipulations could be undertaken to improve biological performance in a hot environment. I. INTRODUCTION Investigations into the nutrition of the pig in Australia have occurred only in recent years largely due to a lack of financial support. Because of the wide fluctuation in ambient temperature and its influence on biological performance, many of these studies may be of only limited value. It is rather strange that more attention has not been paid to pig performance particularly at very high temperatures. Although attempts are generally made to modify fluctuations in shed temperature there are occasions when pigs are exposed to temperatures su.ch that some degree of stress is imposed. This is an area of research which must command high priority in this country. As will be seen later very little research has been undertaken in any country in this area, and much of the results from the few published studies is conflicting. II. PHYSIOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS The pig does not enjoy living in a warm environment. Heat lost through moisture evaporation from the skin is much less than for any domestic species so far measured (Ingram 1974) largely because it does not have sweat glands. Under conditions of high humidity and high temperature there may be a net gain of water by the skin. It is for this reason that pigs allowed outdoors wallow in water, or preferably in mud, to dissipate body heat at high temperatures. At temperatures of 35OC and above, the pig, like other species, relies almost entirely on respiratory evaporation of moisture to lose body heat (Holmes & Close 1977) by changing liquid water into vapour using 2.5 kJ/g of water. Furthermore the pig compared with other species such as the sheep can change its minute volume only to a limited extent, thus heat lost by evaporative means is restricted. The partition of heat loss into evaporative and sensible means is given in Table 1 (Holmes. & Close 1977) When exposed for long periods to high temperature anatomical changes often occur; these probably help pigs to lose heat by sensible means. Fuller (1965) noted that pigs raised in a hot environment had Department of Biochemistry & Nutrition, University of New England, Armidale, N.S.W. Australia. 2351. * l 1.5 3 TABLE I. The partition of total heat loss from a pig pen into sensible and evaporative components (Holmes St Close 1977). less hair, large ears (see also Straub et al. 1975) and longer limbs than controls raised in the cold. Subcutaneous back-fat is of considerable importance; it reduces rate of heat transfer from the body 'core' to the environment. As pigs age they tend to fatten and consequently become less tolerant of heat. Overall thermal conductance by the skin and coat of pigs of various liveweights is given in Table 2. Comparisons are made with sheep and cattle. Clearly the young pig requires warmth, but rapidly acquires a thick skin which is somewhat deceptive in its capacity to transfer heat. TABLE 2. Overall thermal conductance of various domestic animals (Fuller 1969). In Australia ambient temperature within pig houses is frequently above that which is considered comfortable for growing pigs. Although insulation of buildings, use of exhaust fans and in some cases installation of evaporative coolers will reduce, significantly, shed temperature, cost of these installations may be considerable and constant-temperature houses may be uneconomical. The upper above which the which metabolic percent of the critical temperature may be pig shows signs of stress. rate, rectal temperature or total, starts to increase. defined as that temperature This may be the point at evaporative heat loss as a Upper critical temperature 154 is influenced by the plane of nutrition, age or weight of pig, and the number of pigs in a group. Since feeding level may be unrestricted for pigs up to about 40 kg, and thereafter at a controlled rate, upper critical temperature may increase during the latter phase of growth. Normally, however, this effect of feeding is nullified by the increasing deposition of subcutaneous fat. Holmes & Close (1977) calculated the thermoneutral zone of pigs at various liveweights. These data are shown in Table 3, and are theoretical values for individually-housed animals. TABLE 3. Thermoneutral zone (OC) of individual pigs of different liveweights and fed at maintenance (M), 2M and 3M (Holmes Sr Close 1977) The number of pigs in a group will obviously change these temperatures (Mount 1975). Effect of daily variation in temperature on biological performance of pigs is virtually unknown. But one would suppose that such variation would modify responses and may not necessarily be the summation of performances predicted from the mean temperature. Verstegen et al. (1978) summarised data from several experiments in Table 4 to show the effects of temperature on various performance parameters of pigs during the fattening period taking 15OC as the 'standard' temperature. It would seem that for feed-intake and feed conversion ratio maximum values occur at temperatures above 20�C. Although under conditions of a draughty, uninsulated house with wet floorsl the critical temperature may be as high as 29OC (Mount 1975). TABLE 4. Performance of fattening pigs summarised by Verstegen et al. (1978), taking 15OC as the 'standard' temperature. III. GROWTH RATE AND FEED UTILIZATION As indicated in Table 4, feed intake declines as house-temperature 1.5s increases above 15OC, while rate of gain increases and feed conversion also improves. But clearly 15OC is below the critical temperature of growing pigs except perhaps at 70 to 100 kg where rate of gain at 25OC declined (Table 4). Much of the information presented here is drawn from the work of Holmes carried out in New Zealand (Holmes 1971, 1973, 0 1974) where the upper experimental temperature was 32 to 34 C. Difficulty frequently arises inthat the feeding scale adopted, although appropriate for pigs housed in a warm environment, may result in feed refusals at high temperatures particularly when pigs exceed about 50 kg in liveweight (Holmes 1971). Data drawn from various studies are shown in Table 5. In some of the studies feeding level was often ad libitum which clearly imposed a greater stress on pigs in the warmth compared with controlled feeding. In the work of Tonks et al. (1972), although carried out at a high relative humidity, showed that pigs at the lower liveweight fed on a restricted basis gave similar performance irrespective of house temperature. Holmes (1974) made a similar observation TABLJZ 5. Effect of temperature on performance at different levels of feeding. 156 when feeding pigs (31 to 78 kg) at two different planes of nutrition when there was an igteraction of temperature x level of feeding. The hot temperature (33 C) decreased growth rate by 14% at the high level of feeding but increased, it by 24% at the lower level of feeding. Feed conversion ratio tended to follow the same pattern although at ad libitum intake there leas little difference in feed conversion arthe two temperatures (Table 5). But clearly the effect of high temperature on performance is modified by the reduced plane of feeding and is accentuated as pigs approach slaughter weight. The data of Fuller (1965) determined with pigs to 72 days, fed ad libitum and housed in individual trated in Fig. 1. In many respects the response by 0 parameters measured from 10 to 3 0 C summarises much presented in Table 5. grown from 15 cages are illuspigs for the three of the information IV. DIETARY2RCTEIN LEVEL Few experiments have set out to study the effect of manipulation of nutrients in order to modify the effect of high temperature on pig performance. Seymour et al. (1964) fed ad libitum two diets containing 20% and 16% crude protein at 16O and 32OC. Results are shown in Table 6. Although there was a diet at both temperatures, the high-protein diet was low temperature. However, better on the high protein response to additional crude there was no indication from any more advantageous at the feed conversion at the high diet by a greater percentage protein in the growth data that high than at the temperature was than when the 157 same comparison is made at the lower temperature from 7 to 57 kg only. Overall feed conversion was similar at the two different temperatures when comparisons were made at the same dietary protein level. In many ways this experiment is unconvincing; a diet of 16% crude protein was insufficient to maximise performance. There should have been no difference in growth rate or feed conversion at 16OC on the two diets had both diets contained optimum nutrient concentrations. TABLE 6. The effects of diets of high (20%) and low (16%) crude protein on growth and feed conversion when fed ad libitum to pigs housed at 16 and 32OC. Relative advantage (%) is given in parentheses (Seymour et al. 1964) v. ENERGY AND NITROGEN METABOLISM AND HIGH TEMPERATURBS Although there is evidence to the contrary (Holmes 1973) it appears that digestible energy of pig diets increases with increasing ambient temperature. Fuller & Boyne (1972) noted that for the same pig diet'an increase of 0.12% increase per l�C in temperature from 5OC to 23OC. Fuller & Cadenhead (1969) summarised data to support this observation not only for pigs but for some other species. A'logical place to start in any discussion of the interrelationship between ambient temperature and energy requirement is at maintenance. Data are given in Table 7. It is evident that there is an increase in 0 maintenance energy requirement of growing pigs at 30 and 34 C compared with 25OC. Close & Mount (1976a,b) showed that for pigs between 20. 0 and SO kg maintenance energy requirement at 20 C was 5% higher than at 25OC, which in turn was 14.5% lower than at 30�C (Table 7). Also shown in Table 7 is the net efficiency of utilization of metabolizable energy determined at various centres. The efficiency normally reported is in the range .68 to 72% (Thorbek 1975). Thus the value of :8% obtained by Close & Mount (1970a) at temperatures between 20 and 25 C is acceptable. While the coefficients of Holmes (1973, 1974) are doubtful value. Close & Mount (1976a,b) calculated partial efficiencies of formation TABLE 7. Maintenance utilizatioon warm (25 C) parentheses energy requirements of pigs and net efficiency of -. of metabolizable energy AME) of growing pigs at and hot temperatures (34 C), Values (%) in are the relative increments. of protein and fat of 63 and 70%. respectively at temperatures between 20 and 25OC. These efficiencies declined to 60 and 65% at 30�C. When pigs are stressed by high temperature not only is maintenance energy requirement (kJ/kg'*75) increased but the energy required to effect protein and fat synthesis is also increased. Nitrogen retention will vary with the quantity and qualitv of the pro,tein in the diet, as well as level of feeding and the liveweight of the pig. It is evident from data in Table 8 that nitrogen retention (%) declines at high temperatures compared with a thermoneutral environment (20 to 25OC). Level of feeding appears to have a more pronounced effect at a high temperature (Holmes 1973, 1974). VI. CARCASS CHARACTERISTICS High temperature usually increases the length of the pig carcass compared with that at lower temperatures (Straub et al. 1976). There is less certainty as to the effect' of high temperature on the degree of fatness. Increased fatness (Houghton et al. 1964; Holmes 1971, 1973, 1974), to either no effect (Tonks et al. 1972), or tending towards a leaner carcass in a hot environment (Fuller 1965,; Sughara ,et al. 1970) may be associated with differences in feeding level, sex The recent work of Straub et al. (1975) and age of pig at slaughte-r. with pigs (70 to 110 kg) fed ad libitum showed a significant effect of high temperature in reducing back-fat thickness and eye muscle area (Tonks et al. 1972). This might suggest an inferior carcass although this is difficult to assess objectively. Holmes (1974) observed that at the high level of feeding the ratio of enerF1 retained as fat to protein was 3.72 at the warm temperature and 3.16 in the hot. In a previous experiment (Holmes 1973) 159 TABLE 8. Nitrogen (N) retained by growing pigs measured at different environmental temperatures. the comparable ratios were 3.10 and 2 -07 respectively, indicating that more fat was deposited in the hot than in the warm environment. At the lower levels of feeding differences associated with temperature were less clear. VII. OTHER NUTRIENTS Water intake of pigs in a thermoneutral environment is normally two parts to one part of feed dry matter. Temperature increases water consumption to a ratio of 5:l at 34OC (Mount et al. 1971). Some of the apparent increase in water consumption was due to spillage by pigs to cool themselves (Straub et al. 1976); this is an important means of increasing heat loss (Ingram 1974). It has been suggested that thiamin requirement may increase for pigs at high temperatures, but the evidence is unconvincing (Peng &' Huitman 1974). Potassium and calcium rates of excretion were increased in the urine of pigs exposed to a high temperature (Holmes & Grace 1975). Frequently these pigs showed some degree of lameness which may have influenced these high excretions. VIII. CONCLUDING REMARKS It is unsatisfactory to.end a review such as this one with the statement that there are insufficient data to delineate the actual influence of temperature 'on many aspects of biological performance. However, there are no published studies designed to examine the effect of increasing the concentration of dietary energy, particularly through the incorporation of dietary fat, on performance in a hot environment. This may reduce the heat increment of the diet and thus allow pigs to become more tolerant to the heat. Frequency of feeding, the effect of variation in daily temperature, and the significance of time of feeding in relation to variation in temperature must provide scope to improve biological performance of pigs in the warmth. The effects of protein concentration in the diet at various temperatures has been tested in an unconvincing study (Seymour et al. 1964) and requires further examination. One thing is abundantly clear, as pigs age they become less tolerant of high temperature, and as pigs increase their intake at any given age they become less tolerant of high temperature. Maintenance energy requirement increases and net efficiency of utilization of metabolizable energy for gain declines in the hot climate. Modification of these responses present a challenge to researchers and form a basis for future investigations. IX. REFERENCES . CLOSE, W.H. and MOUNT, L.E. (1976a). In 'Energy Metabolism of Farm Animals', p. 343. E.A.A.P. Publ. No. 19. CLOSE, W.H. and MOUNT, L.E. (1976). Proc. Nutr. Soc. 35: 60A. -FULLER, M.F. (1965). Br. J. Nutr. 19: 531. FULLER, M.F. (1969). In 'Animal GrzGth and Nutrition', p. 98. Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia. FULLER, M.F. and BOYNE, A-W. (1972). Br. 3. Nutr. 28: 373. FULLER, M-F. and CADENHEAD, A. (1969). In 'Energy %tabolism of Farm Animals', p. 455. E.A.A.P. Publ. No. 12. HOLMES, C.W. (1971). Anim. Prod. 13: 521. == HOLMES, C.W. (1973). Anim. Prod. 16: 117. HOLMES, C-W. (1974). Anim. Prod. 7% 211. HOLMES, C.W. and CLOSE, W.H. (19767: In 'Nutrition and the Climatic Environment', Ch. 4. Butterworths, London. HOLMES, C.W. and GRACE, W.D. (1975). Anim. Prod. 21: 341. HOUGHTON, T.R., BUTTERWORTH, M.H., KING, D. and COEEYEAR, R. (1964). J. agric. Sci. (Camb.) 63: 43. INGRAM, D-L. (1974). In 'Heat LozE from Animals and Man', Ch.11 Butterworths, London. MORRISON, S.R. and J!0UNT, L-E. (1971). Anim. Prod. 13: 51. MOUNT, L-E. (1968). 'The Climate Physiology of the ?Tg'l. Edward Arnold, London. MOUNT, L.E. (1975). Liv. Prod. Sci. 2: 381. MOUNT, L.E.I HOLMES, C.W., CLOSE, W.%, MORRISON, S.R. and START, I.R. (1971). Anim. Prod. 13: 561. PENG, C.L. and HEITMAN, H. (197341. Br. J. Nutr. 32: 1 SEYMOUR, E.W., SPEER, V.C., HAYS, V.W., MANGOLD,=;.W. and HAZEN, T.E. (1964). J. Anim. Sci. 23: 375. STRAUB, GII WEINGER, J.S,, TAWFIKy=E.S. and STEINHAUF, D. (1976). Liv. Prod. Sci. 3: 65. SUAGHARA, M., BAKER, D.H., %ARMON, D.G. and JENSEN, A.H. (1970). J. Anim. Sci. 31: 59. THORBEK, G. (1975). 'Stu=d=ies on Energy Metabolism in Growing Pigs' Beretn. For$gslab, Kobehavn, 424. TONKS, H-M., SMITH, W.C. and BRUCE, J.M. (1972). Vet. Rec. 90: 531. VERSTEGEN, M.W.A., BRASCAMP, E.W. and VAN DER HEL, W. (19787: Can. J. Anim. Sci. 58: 1. --